Rolling Thunder was a sustained aerial bombing campaign conducted by the United States against North Vietnam from March 1965 to October 1968 during the Vietnam War. The campaign’s original purpose was to bolster the morale of the South Vietnamese and apply pressure on North Vietnam to cease its support for the communist insurgency in South Vietnam. However, the massive bombing campaign failed to achieve its political or strategic goals and came with high costs for both sides.
What were the goals of Operation Rolling Thunder?
Operation Rolling Thunder had four main goals:
- Boost South Vietnamese morale and demonstrate U.S. commitment to the war effort.
- Force North Vietnam to stop supporting the communist insurgency in South Vietnam.
- Destroy North Vietnam’s transportation systems, industrial bases, and air defenses.
- Pressure North Vietnam into negotiating an end to the war.
U.S. leaders believed that a sustained bombing campaign could accomplish these goals by weakening North Vietnam’s economy and war-making capacity. They hoped the mounting costs of the bombing would eventually push North Vietnam to come to the negotiating table.
When did Operation Rolling Thunder take place?
Operation Rolling Thunder began on March 2, 1965 and continued until October 31, 1968, making it one of the longest sustained aerial bombing campaigns in history at the time.
The campaign was steadily escalated over time. The earliest phase focused on targets far from heavily populated areas in an attempt to avoid civilian casualties. However, as the operation progressed, restrictions were loosened and targets widened to include things like industrial facilities and infrastructure near Hanoi and Haiphong.
Major strikes were temporarily halted on several occasions, including a 37-day pause from May to June 1965 and another 6-week pause from December 1965 to January 1966. However, the bombing continued at a steady pace for most of the campaign’s duration.
What types of aircraft and weapons were used?
A wide variety of U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, and allied South Vietnamese planes flew missions during Rolling Thunder. Some of the most common aircraft used included:
- F-105 Thunderchief fighter-bombers
- F-4 Phantom II fighter jets
- B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers
- A-1 Skyraider ground attack planes
- A-4 Skyhawk fighter jets
These aircraft dropped tens of thousands of tons of bombs over North Vietnam, primarily unguided bombs and early precision-guided munitions like the Bullpup air-to-surface missile. Some of the most frequently used bombs included:
- MK-82 500-pound unguided bombs
- MK-84 2000-pound “iron” bombs
- CBU-24 cluster bombs
- Walleye TV-guided glide bombs
A wide range of targets were hit, from roads and bridges to petroleum storage facilities to air defense sites.
What targets were bombed?
Operation Rolling Thunder targeted a variety of military and industrial sites across North Vietnam:
- Transportation infrastructure – Roads, rail lines, bridges, and ports were heavily targeted to disrupt movement of troops and supplies.
- Military facilities – Airfields, barracks, radar sites, and navy bases were bombed to degrade North Vietnam’s military capabilities.
- Industrial and economic targets – Factories, power plants, shipyards, and oil facilities were hit to weaken North Vietnam’s economic capacity.
- Weapon caches and staging areas – Suspected troop concentrations and weapon stockpiles were targeted, especially along the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
- Leadership facilities – Some symbolic political and command & control sites near Hanoi and Haiphong were eventually bombed as well.
The bombing was concentrated in a band across central and southern North Vietnam, from just north of the DMZ to 20th parallel. This included cities like Vinh, Dong Hoi, Thanh Hoa.
How much bombing took place?
Over the course of Operation Rolling Thunder, the U.S. military dropped a massive amount of ordnance on North Vietnam:
- Bombs dropped: Over 1 million tons total
- Bombing sorties flown: 305,000
- Aircraft lost: 922 U.S. planes and hundreds of South Vietnamese planes
- Munitions expended: 864,000 tons of bombs and missiles
At the campaign’s peak intensity in 1967, an average of 2,100 combat sorties were being flown per week and over 1,000 tons of bombs were being dropped daily. By the end of the campaign, nearly a million tons of bombs had been dropped, making it the largest aerial bombing campaign since World War II.
What was the impact and cost of the bombing?
Operation Rolling Thunder inflicted significant damage on North Vietnam, but failed to achieve its larger strategic goals. Estimates of the economic impact vary, but North Vietnam’s industrial capacity was set back several years and billions of dollars of damage was done. Transportation networks were disrupted but quickly repaired or rerouted.
However, the bombing failed to significantly weaken North Vietnamese morale or will to continue the war. If anything, it strengthened opposition to the U.S. and rallied support for the North Vietnamese war effort.
The campaign was also very costly for the U.S. Over 900 aircraft were lost (roughly 1 plane lost for every 300 sorties), and over 150 airmen were killed, captured, or declared missing. Political and public opposition to the costly campaign grew in the U.S.
Why did the U.S. halt the bombing campaign?
Operation Rolling Thunder was ended on October 31, 1968 due to a few key factors:
- The bombing was not achieving its strategic objectives and only strengthened North Vietnamese resistance.
- U.S. aircraft losses had mounted significantly.
- Bombing operations were draining resources needed in South Vietnam.
- Public opinion in the U.S. had soured on the lengthy campaign.
- North Vietnam’s allies, especially the Soviet Union, warned they could not restrain China’s response if bombing continued.
With the Vietnam War at a stalemate, U.S. leaders decided to shift toward a ground war in South Vietnam and seek a negotiated end to the war. A partial bombing halt was enacted and bombing of North Vietnam was limited through the rest of the war.
What were the consequences of Rolling Thunder?
Operation Rolling Thunder had several important consequences:
- It failed to achieve its goals of weakening North Vietnam or bringing them to negotiations.
- It established a precedent of limited, gradual warfare controlled by political leaders rather than military commanders.
- It strengthened anti-war sentiment in America due to its costs and lack of clear success.
- It improved North Vietnam’s air defenses and command & control capabilities.
- It diverted resources away from the ground war in South Vietnam.
While U.S. leaders believed a sustained bombing campaign could help win the war, Rolling Thunder demonstrated the limitations of relying predominantly on air power. North Vietnam remained staunchly committed to reunification under communist rule.
How has Rolling Thunder been assessed historically?
Operation Rolling Thunder has been the subject of considerable historical analysis and debate. Some key assessments include:
- Many military leaders heavily criticized it for being too restrictive and “gradual,” limiting commanders’ ability to prosecute targets.
- Rolling Thunder demonstrated the difficulties of bombing campaigns effectively coercing enemy nations in limited wars.
- It reflected larger issues with U.S. strategy in Vietnam, which lacked coherent objectives.
- The campaign illustrated growing tensions between military leaders and civilian policymakers over war strategy.
- It showed the unpredictability and limited utility of using air power for psychological coercion.
Historians continue to study Rolling Thunder to understand the challenges of limited warfare, the role of air power in war, the relationship between policy and strategy, and the domestic costs of foreign intervention. The campaign was neither a clear success nor failure, but it has left enduring lessons.
Conclusion
In summary, Operation Rolling Thunder was a sustained U.S. bombing campaign aimed at weakening North Vietnam and compelling them to end support for communist insurgents during the Vietnam War. Conducted from 1965-1968, the campaign dropped over a million tons of bombs but failed to achieve its strategic goals. While causing extensive damage, it did not significantly degrade North Vietnam’s capabilities or will to fight on. Rolling Thunder demonstrated the challenges and limitations of gradual coercive bombing campaigns in limited war. The campaign had substantial costs and consequences, and it remains a topic of significant historical analysis regarding the use of air power in war.
